Chile (Capsicum frutescens L.)

Note

Almost innumerable names exist for different chile cultivars in Latin America, especially México. For many of these cultivars, botanical relationships are subject to discussion. In this spice dictionary, Méxican chiles have been treated collectively under paprika. If you need more details, please refer to special literature (e.g., Miller, DeWitt).

Used plant part

Berry fruit (usually called "pods"). They may be harvested ripe or unripe. Removals of seeds and veins results in a less pungent spice. Usage of the leaves to flavour drinks is reported from India.

Plant family

Solanaceae (nightshade family).

Sensoric quality

Chiles may be expected to be hot and pungent. Once accustomed to their fiery pungency, one is surprised how many subtle flavours they may show: Fruity, earthy, smoky, fresh, sweet and flowery are just some of them. The greatest variety of chile tastes is, not surprisingly, found in México (for the usage of chiles in Méxican cuisine, see paprika).

Chile hotness is measured in Scoville units, which is originally a subjective measure based on dilution of chile extracts and organoleptic evaluation by human testers; today, chile hotness is more frequently determined by HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography), whose results can loosely be correlated to traditional Scoville ratings; the conversion generally accepted is that 15 Scoville units equal 1 ppm capsaicin plus capsaicinoids. The very hottest cultivars (Capsicum chinense) range around 200000 to 300000 Scoville units; the extremely fiery Thai chiles barely reach 100000; more common varieties like the jalapeño (the default hot chile for US citizens) or the Italian peperoncino generally lie below 5000 Scoville units.

Whenever considering tabulated chile hotness data, it must be made clear that chiles tend to be extremely variable in their pungency and that even fruits harvested at the same time and from the same plant may differ drastically in their hotness.

Main constituents

Chiles show more or less the same aroma components as paprika, but their content in capsaicin (the amide of 3-hydroxy-2-methoxy-benzylamine with 8-methyl-6-noneneoic acid) and related compounds (collectively called capsaicinoids) is much higher (up to 1%, which equals 150000 scoville heat units). Only true capsaicin is responsible for the pungent and fiery taste of chiles; conventional analytic methods, however, do not yield the capsaicin content, but the sum of capsaicin and capsaicinoids; therefore, "capsaicin content" does not automatically relate to pungency.

Dihydrocapsaicin, the most important capsaicinoid, makes up about one third of the total capsaicin & capsaicinoids fraction. Other capsicinoids (nor-dihydrocapsaicin, homo-dihydrocapsaicin, homo-capsaicin) are only found in traces. It is not clear whether they are organoleptically inert or whether they might modify the pungency and taste of the chile.
The Central American species Capsicum chinense is characterized by very high content of capsaicin, typically 2% (equals 300000 scoville heat units). A proprietarian cultivar, red savina habanero, was long considered the hottest chile on earth: It was measured to breathtaking 3.7% (560000 scoville heat units). This pod really is extremely hot!

Very hot news: In August 2000, Indian scientists reported on a new chile cultivar grown in the hills near the Central Assamese town of Tezpur (Capsicum frutescens cv. Nagahari). This chile variety has beed dubbed Tezpur chili, naga jolokia "chile of the Nagas" (the Nagas are a people inhabiting the border region between India and Burma, east of Tezpur) and is also sometimes referred to as Indian PC-1.

 

Tezpur: Home of the hottest chile on Earth?

This new chile type is much hotter than the Red Savina Habanero: Its heat was measured to incredible 855000 Scoville units, corresponding to 5.7% of capsaicin in the dried material (4.3% Capsaicin und 1.4% Dihydrocapsaicin; remarkably, other capsaicinoids are missing). There are plans to use this plant in the production of weapons ("pepper spray") for private (anti-mugger defense) and for military (riot control) purposes. It is, however, not stated whether the value cited is typical for the variety, or just a rare exception.

Origin

The genus Capsicum stems from South America. See paprika for details.

Unlike most other tropical spices, chiles are easy to cultivate; therefore, their cultivation and usage has spread all over the world, especially to regions with tropic climate. Main producer today is India, albeit mostly for domestic trade.

Etymology

In many European languages, the name of chiles derives from or is identical to the name of pepper, sometimes with attributes indicating red colour, extreme spiciness or the American origin (or transmittance by the Spanish): For example, Italian peperoncino, French poivre rouge, Spanish pimienta picante or Dutch spaanse peper, respectively.
The Italian name diavoletto is a diminutive form of diavolo "devil", indicating the satanic piquancy of this spice.

Cayenne, found in many European names of chile, was loaned from a Native American language: Originally spelt cayan, it goes back to a member of the Tupi language family in which the spice was termed kyinha. Today, Cayenne is also the name of the Capital of French Guiana.

When Columbus found chiles on some caribbean island, he reported the local name aji (or axi), which is still in use in México. The English names chile or chilli (the latter form seems to die out in the US, but is preferred in the UK and Australia) are borrowed from Nahuatl (native Méxican), where the plant's name chilli allegedly derived from a root meaning "red".

 

Capsicum chacoense, a wild species from Argentina

 

For the botanical genus name Capsicum, see paprika; the species name frutescens is the present participle of a synthetic formation frutescere "to become shrubby": Latin frutex "shrub, bush" and the verb fruticari "sprout"; see savory for etymologically related words. Note the inchoative suffix -sc- "getting in a state of". Pubescens "hairy" very well describes the characteristic attribute of this species (hairy leaves), but baccatum "berry-shaped" (see also bay) is not so well chosen, as only some cultivars of this species feature globular, berry-like fruits, but others bear the usual long and finger-shaped pods. Lastly, chinense is a complete misnomer, as this chile variety has absolutely nothing to do with China. By the way, also the species name of paprika, annuum, has no factual justification.

Flower of Capsicum praetermissum (Brazil)

The name bird's eye is often used to denote any small-sized, pointed chile of high pungency, because of the similarity to an avian pupil. There is also the name bird pepper or bird chile for wild forms of chiles, whose small, very punget fruits separate easily from the calyx and are dispersed by birds.
 

When chiles were first brought to Europe by one of Columbus' expeditions, they did not meet much interest, because black pepper (at this time first available in large quantities) seemed much more promising culinarily. Chiles were, however, welcomed by the locals in Portuguese and Spanish colonies and, within a few decades, chile became a fixed part in the daily diet of nearly all peoples in South and South East Asia. This was because other pungent spices were so much more difficult to cultivate (and therefore rather expensive, even in their countries of origin). Chiles, however, grow easily in the hot and humid climate in tropical Thailand, in the glowing hot desert of Northern India and also in the extreme cold and dryness of the Himalayas in Tibet. For a comparision of different pungent spices, see sichuan pepper.
 

Rocoto flower

Only five species of genus Capsicum are cultivated, all of them stem from South America. The most important species economically, Capsicum annuum, is discussed on a separate page.

The hardy Capsicum pubescens from the South American Andes is probably of least importance; only few different cultivars are known. This chile is generally known as rocoto and locoto in Peru and Bolivia, and as chile manzano in México; a cultivar with yellow fruits is termed chile canario). The plant can easily be identified by its purple flowers, hairy (pubescent) leaves and apple-, pear- or egg-shaped pods with dark, almost black, seeds.

Fresh rocoto pods.

Botanically, C. pubescens differs much from the other domesticated Capsicum species. Its small distribution, lack of different pod types and the missing wild form provide a puzzeling challenge to botanists; yet, links to Bolivian wils species (C. eximium und C. cardenasii). have been established.
 

For the cook, the rocoto is characterized by thick-fleshed pods unsuited for drying, a specific flavour, and widely variyng hotness. The rocoto is probably the hottest chile still large enough for stuffing with meat or cheese; an example are rocotos bellenos from the Peruvian Andes. By removing or retaining seeds and veins, the pungency can be controlled.

There is considerable disagreement about the the actual hotness of the rocoto. In addition to the usual variations due to climate and soil, there are probably also individual differences: Because of its unusual spectrum of capsaicinoids, some humans find rocotos extremely hot, even hotter than habaneros, while the majority would rate them only moderately hot.

A European cultivar of C. baccatum.

In parts of South America, especially in the coast area of Peru, numerous varieties of Capsicum baccatum are grown and often collectively termed ají in Spanish. The most common cultivar is the yellow ají amarillo, called kellu-uchu in Quechua and referred to as cusqueño in dried form. This species displays a large variability of pod sizes, shapes and colours; a common feature are yellow or green spots on the petals. Only few cultivars are today grown outside of South America; yet from time to time, one sees cultivars with characteristically bell-shaped fruits in the countries of the Old World, e.g. the peri peri in Portugal and some of its former East African colonies.

The Peruvian ají amarillo chile (fresh)

C. baccatum is cultivated since several millennia; the olderst archeological evidence is 4500 years old. Consequently, human breeding has resulted in a large number of different cultivars, most of which have characteristically shaped pods. The most frequent types include spherical, lantern-shaped and broad finger-shaped ajís. Pungency varies between medium and hot, but does not reach extreme hotness. After drying, many types of ají develop a complex aroma similar to dried fruits.
 

Ripe habaneros

The species Capsicum chinense was long known for the most pungent, yet also aromatic, chiles; most of its cultivars are grown in the Caribbean (habanero in Cuba and Yucatán, Jamaican hot and Scotch bonnet in Jamaica, rocotillo on the Cayman Islands, Congo pepper on Trinidad), although the species appears to have been domesticated in Peru, where today only few cultivars are grown (e.g., the red and very hot chinchi-ucho). Several chinense cultivars have been introduced to Africa by repatriated slaves (fatalii in the Central African Republic, gambia and safi in West Africa, ose utoro in Nigeria). The species is not suitable for cultivation in the temperate climate of Europe; in Asia, there are only few scattered cultivars (e.g., dundicut in Pakistan). Typical hotness is 300000 Scoville units, or even more, but

Ripe habaneros

Also C. chinense is a long-cultivated species (archeologists have found a 6500 years old pod in Peru); consequently, human breeding has resulted in many different fruit colours (orange, red, brown) and shapes (more or less isometric lantern and squash shapes are most common, but there are also elongated and pointed cultivars). The flowers are small, greenish or white with purple or blue anthers; a single node regularily bears several flowers and even fruits, which is rare with other chiles (except C. frutescens, which is very difficult to separate by morphologic means only). A feature suited to identify C. chinense is an annular constriction on the calyx near the base, which almost all chinense cultivars have in common, but which is rarely found with C. annuum or C. frutescens.
there are also mild varieties, e.g., ají panca.
 

 

Fruits of an unknown chinense species (Congo pepper?)

Of the Caribean varieties, several (especially the habanero from Yucatán) are traded in the US in fresh form; they are, however, hardly ever available in Europe. This is quite a pity, because apart from being incredibly hot, the exhibit a delicious, flower-like scent that make eating them a unique experience. They can, however, often be bought in the form of cooked sauces or raw mashes.

The extreme heat of the chinense cultivars is of importance in Caribbean cookery; it is commonly associated with the cuisine of Jamaica, where local chiles bear names like seven pot pepper - probably to indicate that one pod is enough to flavour seven pots of food. Jerk paste, a famous spice mixture from Jamaica, makes use of these powerful chiles (see allspice). Another dish that needs habaneros or their relatives is the Méxican-Caribbean speciality ceviche, raw fish marinated in lime juice.
 

Tabasco plant (C. frutescens): ripe pods, flower

Last but not least, Capsicum frutescens is the species that includes the tabasco chile, one of the most famous of all hot chiles. A Brazilian variety, called melagueta or malagueta, is believed to be the wild form of this species. The melagueta chile must not be confused with the so-called melegueta pepper, which is just another name for grains of paradise.

Similar to the closely related species C. chinense and C. annuum, the cultivation site for C. frutescens is probably Southern Mesoamerica. Yet, the species still shows many attributes of a wild form: Its fruits are small and not fleshy, there is no variation in pod shape, and lastly the fruits drop off easily, to allow dispersal by birds. Common features of all frutescens cultivars are their green flowers and their steeply upwards directed pedicles; also the fruits keep their upright position until maturity (the latter feature is also found with the so-called piquin types of C. annuum). All frutescens cultivars are very hot, ranging typically from 100000 to 150000 Scoville units.
 

Dried Tabasco chiles

A new frutescens cultivar which has earned much fame since August 2000 is the Tezpur chile or naga jolokia from Assam/India, currently the hottest chile in the world. It is, however, doubtful whether this breed will replace the well-established habaneros as sources for high-quality hot sauces: Contrasting the aromatic habaneros and their relatives, the few cultivars of C. frutescens have never played an important rôle in the kitchen, as they are pungent but have hardly any flavour. The tabasco chile may seem an exception to this rule, but remember that the unique aroma of tabasco sauce mainly stems from the long ripening period, not from the underlying chile material.

According to botanical research, many or even most of all hot chiles belong to the species Capsicum annuum. To simplify matter, I have decided to discuss all mild or medium pungent chiles under Capsicum annuum and all hot to very hot under Capsicum frutescens (this is, here). I will use the terms "paprika" and "chile" to denote products of low and high pungency, respectively; botanical implications are not made.

Chiles may be used fresh or dried, ripe or unripe, cooked or raw; any way (that is my personal belief), they tend to make everything better. People who do not agree on this point simply suffer lack of experience and training. Some claim that chiles' pungency hides more subtle flavours and that the fiery hotness suppresses all other tastes. I do not doubt that novices really feel this way, and that chiles really spoil a dish for them, but the argument is not directed against chile use, but against untrained taste buds. After some experience with fiery but tasteful food, most people develop the ability to discern subtle flavours behind the chiles' heat, and actually I feel that chiles enhance and amplify the taste of other food ingredients.

Nevertheless, to the novice, a brutal burning in the mouth is certainly discouraging, and therefore, many people never try enough chiles to pass the initial barrier. Now, if if you happen to get too much chiles, what is the best remedy against the fiery pain in your mouth, that reminds more to burning gasoline than anything edible? Drinks, especially when hot, sour or carbonated, must be avoided (that's why I prefer hot tea to spicy food: It stimulates the taste buds even more). Some suggest bread against the burn, but my experience (well, my experience with my guests :-), to be precise) is best with diary products, especially yoghurt or cream.

When cooking with chiles, one must realize that green and red, fresh and dried or fried and cooked make a great difference. Of the chile cultivars in Asia, I found most being rather equivalent, and local cooks use whatever available, contrasting the habits in México (see paprika). Since I am no expert in Latin American cuisine, I shall now concentrate on the use of chiles in Asia.

Fresh unripe Thai chiles; although fairly hot, this cultivar belongs to C. annuum botanically.

In tropical climate, chiles are available ripe in any time of the year. Therefore, in the cuisines of tropical South East Asia, they are much preferred fresh. In Thailand, "curry pastes" (prik kaeng or prik gaeng) are ground mixtures of chiles with other fresh spices; see coconut for details. Chile-based table condiments are almost ubiquitous in Thailand: nam pla prik (fish sauce with finely choppen green chiles), prik dong (chopped red chiles in vinegar) and prik phom (red chile powder) allow each diner to adjust spiciness (Europeans, however, rarely use the option). The mentioned three chile condiments, plus white sugar and ground toasted peanuts, make up the standard set of "fiver flavours" which is offered even in very cheap restaurants and at family tables.

In Malaysia and Indonesia, food is generally spicy yet not extremely fiery, but since Indonesian cooking is very heterogeneous, in some regions chiles are used liberally: Western Sumatra (nasi padang, see also greater galangale), Bali (see Indonesian bay leaf and lesser galangale for an example of an Indonesian spice paste containing chiles) and North Sulawesi (cooking traditions of the minahasa people) are especially worth noting; see also lemon grass for a general discussion of Indonesian spice pastes. Anywhere in Indonesia, sambal, a red hot chile sauce, is provided at the table to adjust hotness level to one's personal taste. Sambal may consist simply of mashed, salted chiles sambal ulek, but may also be fried or enhanced with trassi, the ubiquitous shrimp paste, or nuts or other spices; a popular recipe is sambal bajak. An everlasting impression from Indonesia is rujak, a fruit salad with sweet palm sugar and pungent chiles (see mango).

Most Chinese cooking styles, as a rule of thumb, avoid to much spicyness; especially Southern Chinese (Kantonese) recipes, which are most frequently found in Chinese restaurants outside China, seem to abhor chiles at all.

In Central China (Sichuan and the more Eastern Hu-nan province), however, chiles and garlic are very popular and used in astonishing amounts. Dried red chiles are often fried in hot oil until dark brown, the oil then being used to prepare stir-fries (see ginger for an example). Another method of applying chiles is the usage of doubanjiang (hot bean paste), a fiery paste prepared from chiles and soy beans by fermentation; it is most typical for Sichuan cookery. As a last-minute condiment, sesame oil flavoured with crushed red chiles is very common in Central China; it is applied dropwise before serving or individually at the table.

A well-known example of Sichuan cookery is mapo tofu, spicy minced pork with bean cheese. For this dish, the pork is stir-fried together with doubanjiang and garlic and then combined with mild, soft bean cheese. Toasted sichuan pepper capsules and a hint of sesame oil provide additional flavour. For another Sichuan recipe, see ginger.

Although Vietnamese food is only moderately spiced, chiles are always available as optional additives at the table, either fresh or in fish sauce (nuoc mam), similar to Thai custom. This applies mostly to the South; in North Vietnam, garlic replaces chiles as condiment.

In Japan, chile plays only a minor rôle; it is less used than in probably any other Asian country. It is almost never employed for cooking, but table condiments containing chiles are served to specific kinds of food. For example, dried chiles, either alone or in mixture with other spices (shichimi togarashi, see sichuan pepper), are popular for spicing up soups. Another table condiment is momiji-oroshi, a mixture of radish (daikon) and and small amounts of red chiles, which are grated together to a fine paste. This preparation is canonical for a few dishes, for example sashimi made from the infamous fugu fish, which contains the deadly poison tetrodotoxine (see wasabi for other, less exotic, types of sashimi). On the bottom of the line, it appears that chile hotness is more or less incompatible with the subtle flavours on which Japanese cuisine in general depends.

In neighbouring Korea, though, chiles are much loved. They are either used fully ripe and dried (a red powder of bright colour and full heat), or in form of a chile-flavoured hot bean paste (gochu jang). Containing glutinous rice besides chiles and beans, gochu jang has a smother texture and more subtle flavour than its Chinese counterpart, doubanjiang; but in the worst case, one may substitute the other. Besides chiles, sesame (both in form of sesame seeds and in form of dark sesame oil), garlic and ginger are the most prominent flavours. Korean cookery is, unfortunately, not much known in Europe.

The Korean term kim chi refers to pickled vegetables, which form an important part of Korean diet. Westeners most often think of kim chi as a cabbage pickle (which, indeed, is the national dish of Korea), but there are numerous other types. Recipes vary from household to household: Most popular is fermented kim chi (a spicy Eastern variation of German Sauerkraut, see juniper), but other varieties derive their acidity from vinegar or are not sour at all. Second to cabbage, radish (of the type called daikon in Japan) is a popular vegetable for kim chi. Most types of kim chi are fairly hot due to generous use of hot dried chiles, fresh garlic and fresh ginger; sugar, soy sauce and, optionally, herbs or dried fish products provide additional flavour. Kim chi is often served sprinkled with dark sesame oil.

South Indian and Sri Lankan cuisine uses fresh green chiles, which are taken in mind-boggling amounts for stir-fries and deep-fried lentil snacks. For curries, dried red chiles are usually preferred; three large tablespoons for one liter of curry is not unreasonable. Traveler, be forewarned (or attracted) by the colour! I have found no other place in Asia where tourists that constantly refused to eat local food than in Sri Lanka.

In Northern India, as well as in Central Asia, chiles are nearly always used dried. They are sold whole or ground at the market and are intensively fiery, intensively coloured and intensively aromatic; for most applications, they are fried in fat (see ajwain), whereby the pungency gets extracted and distributes uniformly in the food. In India, chiles from Kashmir (in the Northwest of India) have best reputation. I have not found a similar quality in Europe. The deep red colour (not orange as the stuff available here in the West) is comparable to the best quality of Hungarian sweet paprika, as is the fragrance; but the pungency is strong and pleasant. A mixture of high-quality sweet and very hot but less aromatic products will probably do best.

Not surprisingly, chiles appear in many spice mixtures: Indian garam masala and sambaar podi (see cumin), curry powder (see curry leaves), their Ethiopian pendent berebere (see long pepper) and Arabic mixtures (baharat, see paprika and zhoug, see coriander). Far Eastern examples include Japanese shichimi togarashi (see sichuan pepper) and the former mentioned Thai curry pastes (see coconut). For Méxican mole sauces, see paprika.

Other spice preparations are made entirely or at least dominantly of chiles, like the hot pepper sauces of the Southern US and México (containing mostly vinegar or lemon juice, garlic, salt and chiles; see long coriander about salsa) or Tunisian harissa, a fiery paste of dried red chiles, garlic, cumin (or caraway), coriander, olive oil and sometimes a hint of peppermint.

There seems to be a positive correlation between environment temperature and chile consume - chiles are more popular in hot climates. There is, though, a remarkable exception to the "climate rule": Tibet (much of an exception in many respects, I guess). Tibetan food is mildly seasoned, but fiery chile condiments are always found on the tables; a most typical recipe is churu sibeh, chiles mixed with pungent mold-ripened blue cheese. Since it is difficult to grow ripe chiles at altitudes above 3500 m, Tibetans often use unripe green chiles, which lack aroma, but not fiery hotness. The same combination of cheese and chiles is found in neighbouring Bhutan: The national dish, ema datshe or hemadatsi, is a thick soup of fresh green chiles and aged yak cheese.

Most European countries do not use chiles for their traditional dishes; only the Mediterranean states and Hungary have much of a chile tradition, though food is rarely really fiery even in these countries. Consequently, there are only few partcular chile cultivars in Europe: A good example is the fiery piri-piri, a Portuguese variety sold almost exclusively in pickled form. Other hot chiles are mostly used dried, e.g., the piment d'espelette from Pays Basque in France, or the South Italian peperoncino. One should also mention the so-called Hungarian "cherry pepper", a remarkable compromise between nice pungency and very good flavour. Milder varieties are discussed under paprika.

In Central and North Europe, chiles are generally regarded as food spoilers, and people do not spend their time by growing or using them.